The history map of black Khan in the Northern Song Dynasty of China
Map Introduction
I. The West Uighur Kingdom: A Silk Road Hub with Dual Allegiance
The West Uighur Kingdom (866–1324 AD), centered around Qocho (Gaochang, modern Turpan), was a polity established after the Uighur westward migration. During the Northern Song period, it maintained close tributary relations with the Central Plains. In 981, Emperor Taizong of Song dispatched Wang Yande as an envoy, whose records noted that the 'Lion King' used Qocho as his winter capital and Beshbalik (Beiting) as his summer capital, with his domain stretching south to the desert, facing Khotan. Its economy combined agriculture, pastoralism, and transit trade. While Buddhism was the primary faith, it retained traditional Turkic official titles such as Tarkhan. During the Liao Dynasty (907–1125), the West Uighur Kingdom became a significant vassal, paying tribute to the Liao 24 times; the Liao established the "Prince of Gaochang's Residence" to exercise indirect rule. This dual allegiance allowed it to maintain a unique position amidst the Song-Liao rivalry. After 1132, it submitted to the Western Liao and was eventually incorporated into the Mongol Empire.
II. Khotan: The Last Bastion of Buddhist Civilization
Khotan (c. 232 BC–1006 AD) was a Buddhist kingdom ruled by the Yuchi clan. During the Northern Song period, its rulers still styled themselves "King of Khotan, Great Treasure," continuing the "maternal nephew-paternal uncle" relationship with the Central Plains. Its culture blended Indian and Iranian elements. Xuanzang recorded its unbroken royal lineage, while the painter Yuchi Yiseng was as renowned in Chang'an as Wu Daozi. Its economy relied on jade trade and silk production, making it a pivotal node for the eastward transmission of Buddhism. In the late 10th century, it engaged in prolonged religious warfare with the Islamized Kara-Khanid Khanate. Its capital fell in 1006, leading to the eventual demise of this Buddhist civilization. Notably, in 1081, the Kara-Khanid Khanate still sent tribute to the Northern Song under the name "Kingdom of Khotan," demonstrating the continuity of this political symbol.
III. The Kara-Khanid Khanate: An Islamized Turkic Power
The Kara-Khanid Khanate was founded by a confederation of Turkic tribes, including the Uighurs and Karluks. In the mid-10th century, Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan enforced Islamization, making it the first Turkic-Islamic state in Central Asia. Its territory bordered the West Uighur Kingdom to the east and Khotan to the south; Northern Song records refer to it as "Heihan" or "Heihan." The Khanate employed a dual-Khagan system, with co-existing eastern (Kashgar) and western (Samarkand) centers. Coin inscriptions reveal its self-proclaimed title as "Ruler of the East and China." Its religious war with Khotan (c. 970–1006) was a significant historical event, culminating in the annexation of the Buddhist kingdom. Culturally, it retained Turkic traditions, as evidenced by the 11th-century Compendium of the Turkic Dialects compiled there.
IV. Triangular Rivalry and Geopolitical Interactions
These three polities engaged in complex strategic games:
- Religious Conflict: The Kara-Khanid jihad against Khotan (970–1006) altered the religious landscape of the Western Regions, forcing Buddhist influence to retreat towards Qocho.
- Trade Competition: The West Uighur Kingdom controlled the northern Silk Road routes, the Kara-Khanids held key southern route hubs, and Khotanese jade was a resource contested by all three.
- Diplomatic Strategies: The West Uighur Kingdom addressed Song and Liao as "maternal nephew"; the Kara-Khanids used the "Khotan" name for tributary missions to Song; Khotan maintained its Buddhist cultural identity.
These interactions shaped the 10th–11th century Central Asian "Buddhist-Islamic" civilizational transition zone and laid the groundwork for the subsequent rise of the Western Liao.