China Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Xizhou Uighur, nine surname Wuhu, karluks and other historical maps
Map Introduction
I. The Rise and Territorial Expansion of the West Uighur Kingdom
The West Uighur Kingdom (also known as the Qocho Uighur Kingdom), as the core polity formed from the westward migration of the Uighurs, completed three key expansions between the late 9th and 10th centuries:
- Conquest of the Anxi Uighurs: In the late 9th century, it captured Yanqi (Karakhoja) and Kucha, gaining control of the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains.
- Advance into the Ili Valley: During the 940s, it conquered Turkic tribes along the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul.
- Conflict with the Kara-Khanid Khanate: In the early 11th century, its territory reached Aksu and Uch-Turfan, but by the 1070s, it had retreated to a defensive position centered on Yanqi.
II. The Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan
Khotan (modern-day Hotan) developed into a unique Buddhist kingdom during the Five Dynasties period:
- Reign of Li Shengtian: In 938, he declared himself a "scion of the Tang" and adopted the reign title "Celestial Commission Emperor," forging marital alliances with the Guiyi Army in Dunhuang.
- Cultural Characteristics: It retained a Chinese-style bureaucratic system, and its Buddhist art incorporated Gandharan influences. The extant Record of the Khotanese Embassy documents its interactions with the Central Plains.
III. Ethnic Fusion of the Toquz Oghuz
This section details the evolution of the core tribes of the former Uighur Khaganate:
- Name Change: Adopted the name "Uighur" in 788; following the westward migration, some factions integrated into the West Uighur Kingdom.
- Political Status: Served as the foundational power base for the West Uighur Kingdom, forming a "Nine-Tribe Alliance" with tribes like the Karluks.
IV. Migration and Differentiation of the Karluks
During the Five Dynasties period, the Karluk tribes developed along three distinct branches:
- Subjects of the West Uighurs: Some submitted to Qocho, garrisoning the western frontiers of Kucha.
- Central Asian Karluks: According to the 982 text Hudud al-'Alam, they were active between the Toquz Oghuz and the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
- Vassals of the Kara-Khanids: By the 11th century, they became a military mainstay of the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
V. Inter-tribal Relations
- Religious Conflict: A standoff emerged between the Buddhist polity of Khotan and the Islamic forces of the Kara-Khanid Khanate.
- Economic Ties: The West Uighur Kingdom controlled the northern Silk Route, maintaining a silk-for-horses trade with the Dunhuang Guiyi Army.
- Military Alliances: The Karluks frequently participated as mercenaries in the wars between various polities.
Summary
The Western Regions during the Five Dynasties period exhibited three major characteristics:
- Political Upheaval: The collapse of the Uighur Khaganate led to the emergence of multiple regional powers like the West Uighur Kingdom and Khotan.
- Cultural Fusion: Buddhism, Islam, and Shamanism coexisted, creating a pluralistic religious landscape.
- Silk Road Restructuring: The traditional oasis city-state system was supplanted by hybrid nomadic-agrarian polities.